Glossary

Ascochyta blight is a fungal disease that attacks the leaflets, stems, petioles, pods, and seeds of lentil. Heavily infected seeds usually are characterized by a half-moon shaped, light to reddish or reddish brown spot on the edge of the seed. Occasionally it appears as a brown spot on the cheek of the seed.

Ascochyta blight was first reported in Canada in 1978 and has subsequently become a serious problem. It causes yield losses and severe seed discolouration in epidemic years.

A Berlese funnel is a device for collecting insects.

Grain suspected of being infested is placed in the funnel. The funnels used by Industry Services hold up to one kilogram of grain. The funnels are placed under lights. Insects move away from the lights down the funnel and are collected in receptacles placed under the funnels.

Binburnt kernels closely resemble fireburnt kernels in colour. However, in cross section, the binburnt kernel maintains its dense structure and appears smooth and glossy, unlike a fireburnt kernel, which looks like charcoal in cross-section, has numerous air holes, and crumbles easily under pressure.

Binburnt kernels are caused by gradual heating in storage and have not been exposed to temperatures approaching ignition.

The weight of a binburnt kernel is similar to that of a sound kernel of comparable size.

Blackpoint is a discolouration on the germ end of kernels of grain caused by numerous species of fungi and bacteria. Blackpoint is found in barley, triticale and wheat, although there is no separate tolerance defined for blackpoint in barley.

Kernels are susceptible during periods of rainfall or humidity above 90% - particularly during filling or maturation.

Blackpoint does not usually reduce yields, but it can reduce grade and quality. Blackpoint is especially troublesome on durum wheat because black specks can appear in the semolina.

Bunt is characterized the presence of bunt balls or black spores. Infected grain may have a fishy odour. Common bunt is a wheat disease caused by two closely related fungi, Tilletia caries and Tilletia foetida. The disease is also called stinking or covered smut. In infected plants, kernels on headed plants are replaced with bunt balls containing black powdery spores of the fungus.

Bunt reduces yield of infected crops, and it reduces the value of the crop, even in mildly infected crops. It is not as common as it once was in Canada, because we have developed effective control measures and new cultivars that are resistant to the disease.

The caryopsis is the kernel of cereal grains and grasses with the hull removed.

See groats.

The Canadian Grain Commission issues a number of certificates assuring grain quality. These include:

• Inspection certificate, issued following an official inspection of a sample of grain
• Certificate Final, issued on cargoes of grain for export, stipulates the grade and weight of the grain
• Submitted sample certificate, issued for a submitted sample

Contaminated is defined in the Canada Grain Act as; “Contaminated means, in respect of grain, containing any substance in sufficient quantity that the grain is unfit for consumption by persons or animals or is adulterated within the meaning of the regulations made pursuant to sections B.01.046(1), B.15.001 and B.15.002(1) of the Food and Drugs Act.”

Determination as to whether grain is contaminated will be made by the Grain Research Laboratory in consultation with the Chief Grain Inspector for Canada. Samples deemed to be contaminated are graded “Type of Grain, Sample Condemned.

Paragraph 76. (1) of the Canada Grain Act specifies that operators of licensed terminal elevator must inform the Canadian Grain Commission if they find grain to be infested or contaminated, or to have gone or to be likely to go out of condition or otherwise to require treatment. The Canadian Grain Commission may inspect the grain.

The Canadian Grain Commission tells the operator how to treat or dispose of the grain. If the grain has been special binned, the elevator operator may recover the costs of treating or disposing of the grain from the owner of the grain.

Paragraph 90. (1) says that a Canadian Grain Commission inspector who believes on reasonable grounds that grain is contaminated may seize any evidence necessary to support their suspicion. Paragraph 104 says that an operator of a licensed elevator must not knowingly receive or discharge any grain, grain product or screenings that is infested or contaminated or that may reasonably be regarded as being infested or contaminated

Darkened kernels are similar in appearance to penetrated smudge with the exception that discolouration is gray to charcoal in colour rather than red to dark brown.

For grading purposes, darkened kernels should be considered as, and in conjunction with severe midge damaged

According to the Canada Grain Act, dockage is material that must be removed from grain by the use of approved cleaning equipment so that the grain can be assigned a grade. Once it has been removed from the grain, dockage is called screenings.

To report the percentage by weight of dockage in a sample,

Earth pellets are a type of foreign material found in grains.

Soft earth pellets include soft fertilizer pellets, except in domestic mustard seed, and any non-toxic material of a similar consistency. Earth pellets remaining in cleaned samples are handpicked and, up to specified tolerances, their percentage by weight is added to the percentage by weight of dockage in domestic shipments to terminals. Export shipments must be practically free from earth pellets.

Hard earth pellets are stones.

Mixtures of eastern and western grain, except for corn, are graded [class of grain] Sample Eastern and Western Mixed. When the composition of the samples is known or can be established by analysis, it is recorded on the back of the inspection certificate.

Separate lots of western corn may be loaded to vessels without separation at the request of shippers.

Export ready refers to carlots which meet the following criteria:

1. The lot must meet the commercially clean specifications for the grade
2. Wheat of other classes and contrasting classes must meet the export specifications for the grade
3. Total foreign material must meet the export specification for the grade

Carlots, which are commercially clean but do not meet the export specifications for either wheat of other classes or total foreign material, will be designated as “Not Ready for Export”.

Can be defined as glass, metal, wood, plastic or any other material not already defined in the Official Grain Grading Guide.

The falling number is a measure of enzyme activity as a result of sprouting. It is a measure of how many seconds it takes for a plunger to sink through a paste made of ground grain and water.

The test works on the principle that the presence of alpha-amylase causes the gelatinized starch to be reduced to sugars, with a loss of viscosity. The loss in viscosity results in a lower falling number. Samples of grain with high amounts of alpha-amylase will have a falling number of around 70 seconds. Grain which is sound and has low levels of enzyme will have a high falling number, for example, 350 seconds.

Fireburnt kernels are kernels burned or scorched by fire. A cross-section of a fireburnt kernel resembles charcoal, with numerous air holes. These air holes result in a low-weight kernel which crumbles easily under pressure.

The Off-Grades of Grades of Grain and Grades of Screenings Order excludes from any Class I or Class II grade any grain having a fireburnt odour or containing fireburnt kernels in excess of established tolerances, because it is not possible to separate all kernels affected by smoke or heat from samples containing grain damaged by fire.

If the inspector suspects that a sample or shipment of grain is not of Canadian origin, the shipper must provide a letter indicating the country of origin, before official grading occurs.

Unofficial samples: Inspection services may be provided for samples of foreign grains. Certificates or letters must clearly indicate that the grade provided is the grade the sample would qualify for if the grain had been of Canadian origin.

Official samples, terminal receipts: Inspection records and certificates specify the class of grain and, in place of the grade, the country of origin. For example, Corn, USA origin.

Foreign material is material other than grain of the same class that remains in the sample after the removal of dockage. Some examples of foreign materials found in grain samples are:

• Cereal grains, sometimes called other cereal grains
• Earth pellets, soft
• Ergot
• Fertilizer pellets, hard
• Large seeds
• Matter other than cereal grains
• Roughage
• Sclerotinia
• Small oilseeds
• Small seeds
• Stones

Many of the materials, such as stones, ergot, and sclerotinia have separate tolerances. Foreign material reduces the value—there is less desired grain for the weight or volume purchased. In addition, the presence of foreign material in grain compromises our reputation for clean grain.

Even the presence of other cereal grains can compromise the quality of the predominant grain. For example, the presence of barley in wheat reduces milling yield. Oats in red spring wheat reduces milling yield and gives the flour a duller colour.

Oilseed quality is determined in part by the free fatty acid test.

Free fatty acids are components that reduce the smoke point in frying fats and oxidize rapidly, giving rancid flavours.

The test gives a direct measure of the processing qualities of the oil and the amount of lye required to refine oils. Top canola seed usually has less than 0.7% free fatty acids. International specifications for top grade oil are usually set at 2.0% free fatty acids.

The severity of frost damage depends on the stage of maturity of the grain, the temperature to which the grain is exposed, and the duration of exposure.

In wheat, as the degree of frost damage increases,

• Wheat milling becomes more difficult
• Flour yield decreases
• Flour ash content increases
• Flour colour becomes darker, which may not be commercially acceptable
• Bread volume, appearance, crumb structure and crumb colour deteriorate

Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease of wheat and other cereal crops.

In wheat it is characterized by the presence of kernels that appear lifeless, thin and shrunken. The kernels show a whitish or pinkish fibrous mould usually occurring in the crease area but sometimes found in the germ of the kernel as well. The presence of the mould on individual kernels is confirmed using a 10-power magnifier.

Fusarium may produce mycotoxins such as vomitoxin. Affected grain may be unpalatable or toxic to animals, and is considered acceptable for human consumption only when virtually free of mycotoxins.

Glucosinolates are natural components of canola, rapeseed, and mustard seed. These compounds are responsible for the pungent odour and sharp flavour of cabbage, brussels sprouts, radishes, broccoli and cauliflower. They are natural toxicants, associated with goitre and liver damage when consumed in large quantities.

Glucosinolates may be desirable in mustard seed destined for condiment use. However, high levels in rapeseed restricted the use of this seed for feed. Breeding programs to reduce the level of glucosinolates in rapeseed produced canola.

A grade code is a four-digit code used throughout the grain industry to identify each grade of each class of grain.

See also grain code.

Grades of grain are defined by specifications in

• The Canada Grain Regulations
• The Official Grain Grading Guide
• Orders of the Canadian Grain Commission

A grading factor is a physical condition of grain, the result of growing conditions, handling procedures or storage practices. It is a visual characteristic that indicates a reduction in quality; for example, frost damage, sprouted kernels, or heated kernels. Only relevant grading factors are shown as reasons for a grade.

• If a sample of wheat grades No.Number 3 for one particular reason, there is no need to list other factors that might be acceptable in a higher grade.
• If the sample is No.Number 3 for a combination of reasons, the combination must be shown in order of importance.

A grain code is a two-digit code used throughout the industry for each class of grain.

See also grade code.

Vitreousness is the natural translucence of a kernel that is a visible sign of kernel hardness. Hard vitreous kernels (HVK) are a grade determinant for the amber durum wheat class in Canada and the red spring wheat class in western Canada.

HVK content is related to protein content and milling quality, which are particularly important in durum wheat. Non-vitreous kernels are produced under cool maturation conditions, abundant soil moisture and insufficient nitrogen. Flours milled from non-vitreous wheat have reduced protein content and produce poor loaf volumes. Non-vitreous kernels are not as significant in soft wheats, since low protein is desirable for most soft wheat end-products.

For Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS) and Canada Western Amber Durum (CWAD), there are specific limits for kernels damaged by grasshopper and armyworm, midge and sawfly.

Grasshopper and armyworm damage: Grasshoppers and armyworms chew out sections of kernels - particularly the ends and sides. At an early stage, armyworms may chew tunnels through the kernels. This destroys the endosperm, and leaves the exposed chewed areas susceptible to fungal and bacterial infections. Heavy discolourations and moulds may result.

Orange wheat blossom midge: The orange wheat blossom midge causes a distinct form of damage. Grade tolerances for midge have existed for many years based primarily on the shrivelling and distortion of midge-damaged kernels. The tiny midge larvae feed directly on the developing kernels in the heads of wheat. The extent of damage largely depends on the number of larvae feeding on each kernel.

The full effects of midge damage on Canadian red spring bread wheat quality have been studied, revealing the seriousness of midge damage to quality. The shrunken distorted grains reduce flour yields and produce dark flours with increased flour ash. Severely midge-damaged wheat exhibits weak, sticky dough properties, low baking absorption and poor bread quality. Protein content is abnormally high, but gluten protein quality is distinctly inferior.

The Canada Grain Regulations establish procedures for handling infested grain at primary elevators. Grain found infested at terminal elevators is handled and treated under the direction of an officer of the Canadian Grain Commission.

According to the Canada Grain Act, infested grain is grain that contains any injurious, noxious or troublesome insect or animal pest.

Insect parts refers to pieces of insects such as grasshoppers and lady bugs that remain in the sample after cleaning or processing. Samples are analyzed for the percentage of insect fragments and graded according to established tolerances.

If pulse crops come into contact with insects during the harvesting process, it may result in seed staining and earth adhering to the seed and may result in samples having an objectionable odour. Samples containing staining of this nature will be considered to be earth tagged and graded according to colour definitions. Samples having a distinct objectionable odour not associated with the quality of the grain will be graded Type of Grain Sample Account Odour.

A Canadian Grain Commission grain inspector issues an inspection certificate following an official inspection of a sample of grain. The certificate must state

• Where the grain was grown in Canada
• The grade according to the Canada Grain Act
• Dockage
• Other relevant information

Invisible losses are normal losses of weight of grain during normal handling.

Invisible weight losses are primarily from

• Dust losses during handling
• Moisture losses during storage
• Unexplained weight losses in oilseeds during storage

Midge damage is found mostly in wheat, although it has been detected in barley, rye, and some grasses.

The only part of the plant damaged is the developing seed. When a kernel of grain is attacked either it will not develop or it will develop as a shrivelled, deformed kernel. Infestations of the wheat midge can significantly reduce yield. They are most severe when rainfall is high during the spring or summer.

See insect damage.

Mildew is a fungal condition that affects wheat, barley and a number of other grains. It develops in unthreshed kernels of grain, usually under conditions of excessive moisture. It should not be confused with the disease powdery mildew, which attacks the leaves, reducing yield.

Downy mildew, caused by Peronospora manshurica, can sometimes form a white coating on soybeans. These are spores of the fungus. They do not affect the processing or safety of the seed, but can affect the appearance.

Moisture content is a measure of the water content of grain.

Grain that is within acceptable limits of moisture is referred to as a straight grade. With increasing moisture content, grain may be referred to as tough, damp, moist and wet. See Chapter 2, Moisture testing.

Mycotoxins are poisonous substances produced by some species of fungi.

For example, several Fusarium species can cause a disease called fusarium head blight. One of the more important species of fusarium, Fusarium graminearum, can produce several mycotoxins, most commonly, deoxynivalenol or vomitoxin, which, when present in feed grain, is distasteful and can reduce the rate of weight gain in some animals.

In corn, Fusarium graminearum, also called Gibberella zeae, causes the disease gibberella ear rot. Besides deoxynivalenol, another compound known as zearalerone may be formed. This compound has estrogen-like effects, especially in pigs and cattle.

Shipments of grain whose dockage content falls outside of allowed limits.

See commercially clean.

The Off-Grades of Grain and Grades of Screening Order is issued by the CGC. It provides the authority for the application of the grading terms rejected, sample, tough,damp, moist, and wet, and defines grades of screenings.

The Off-Grades of Grain and Screenings Order is available through the CGC web site at http://www.grainscanada.gc.ca. The direct address is https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._890/index.html

The following list is used to assign reasons for Sample grades.

1. Sample Account Admixture, Contaminated grain
2. Sample Salvage
3. Sample Account Fireburnt
4. Sample Account Excreta
5. Sample Account Fusarium
6. Sample Account Ergot
7. Sample Account Odour
8. Sample Account Rotted
9. Sample Account Heated
10. Sample Account Mildewed
11. Sample Account Damaged
12. Sample Account Damage and Foreign Material
13. Sample Account Dehulled
14. Sample Account Stained Kernels
15. Sample Account Sprouted
16. Sample Account Admixture
17. Sample Account Splits
18. Sample Account Lightweight
19. Sample Account Stones
20. Sample Account Mixed Colours

A cereal grain mixed into another type of cereal grain is considered foreign material. The presence of other cereal grains affects the processing quality of the main grain.

For grading purposes, spelt and Kamut® are considered as Other cereal grains in samples of wheat, rye, barley, oats and triticale.

Grain which is out of condition has deterioriated in storage. Grain that is damp, heating or spoiling in storage requires special treatment such as drying or aeration to preserve its quality or to prevent further deterioration.

Paragraph 76. (1) of the Canada Grain Act specifies that operators of licensed terminal elevator must inform the Canadian Grain Commission if they find grain that is or is likely to go out of condition. The Canadian Grain Commission may inspect the grain. The Canadian Grain Commission tells the operator how to treat or dispose of the grain. If the grain has been special binned, the elevator operator may recover the costs of treating or disposing of the grain from the owner of the grain.

A processed sample is a sample of grain that meets the commercially clean definition.

See unprocessed sample.

Canada Grain Regulations. The Regulations can be viewed through the CGC web site at https://www.grainscanada.gc.ca/en/industry/acts-regulations/

The direct address is https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._889/

A sample is a portion of grain taken to represent an entire truckload, carload or cargo.

The size of a sample to be analysed for the presence of specific grading factors is established for each class of grain in its section. The term approximate is often used, allowing inspectors to take into consideration the concentration of the grading factor in the sample.

Types of samples include

• average sample
• cargo sample
• composite sample
• official carlot unload sample
• official sample
• processed sample
• running sample
• standard sample
• submitted sample
• unprocessed sample

Sample grades are defined in the Off-Grades of Grain and Grades of Screenings Order. Grain that is not eligible for Class I or II grades under the Canada Grain Act is graded Sample. With the exception of sample salvage, reference is made in all sample grades to Canada (CAN), Canada Western (CW) or Canada Eastern (CE); for example, Barley, Sample CW Account Heated.

Only the major grading factor forms part of the grade name. Secondary reasons for a sample grade are noted in remarks; for example, a sample of rye having a strong chemical odour and containing 9.0% by weight of heated kernels might have the following comments:

• The grade is Rye, Sample CW/CE, Account Odour
• The inspector’s remarks on form I-12 are strong chemical odour, 9.0% heated.

The remarks section of the inspection record for samples graded Sample CW/CE/Canada may include the following:

• For wheat, the class or classes of wheat eligible for sample grades
• The nature and concentration of admixture in samples graded Sample CW/CE/Canada, Account Admixture
• The kind of odour in samples graded Sample CW/CE/Canada, Account Odour

When sample grades are assigned, the reason shown for the grade is selected according to the Order of Precedence.

Any grain salvaged from a wreck in transit containing over 2.5% by weight of stones or any other conspicuous ground material, removable or not, is graded [class of grain], Sample Salvage. For example, Wheat, Sample Salvage.

• Admixtures of inseparable seeds or other grains are disregarded if they do not exceed the tolerances permitted in the lowest grade of that grain.
• The composition of official samples is entered on inspection records and endorsed on the back of certificates.
• The composition of unofficial samples is shown on the face of form I-7 certificates and the I-12 form

The wheat stem sawfly has caused serious harvest losses to spring wheat in the prairie region. It attacks the base of stems causing tillers of mature plants to break off. Early swathing can reduce spring wheat harvest losses, but the most effective means of managing this insect pest has been the production of resistant cultivars.

See insect damage.

Scab damage refers to kernels of wheat that have been severely affected by fusarium. Scab damage is included in and assessed as fusarium damage for grade assessment. The percentage concentration of scab damage may be recorded for specific markets upon request.

• Scab kernels must be completely dull, lifeless, with a chalky appearance, and
• Must have no semblance of soundness and no visible natural wheat colour, and
• Scab kernels must have a white or pinkish fibrous growth

Sclerotia are hard, compact masses of fungal mycelium that serve as resting or survival structures.

One type of sclerotia is the mass of fungal tissue produced by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, which attacks crops such as sunflower and canola. Infections result in yield loss. While it does not attack cereal crops, sclerotia may be found as contaminants in samples of cereal grains from infected fields.

Screenings is dockage material that has been removed by cleaning from a parcel of grain. Screenings qualify for Class IV grades.

See Off-Grades of Grain and Grades of Screenings Order.

Kernels are considered to be severely damaged when

• the kernel is severely shriveled or distorted due to weather, insect, fungal and/or other reason
• in wheat, the cheeks and/or back of the kernel are ruptured

Shrinkage means the loss in weight of grain that occurs in the handling or treating of grain.

Paragraph 30 of the Canada Grain Regulations specifies the maximum shrinkage allowance that may be made on the delivery of grain to any licensed elevator is zero. An order given by the Canadian Grain Commission provides the calculation of moisture shrinkage allowed for tough, damp, moist or wet grain artificially dried at the producer’s request at primary elevators.

Shrunken kernels in wheat are whole kernels that pass through a No.Number 4.5 slotted sieve.

See thin and shrunken.

Sieves used in dockage assessment and grading procedures are listed in the Canada Grain Regulations. The accuracy of sieves used by the Canadian Grain Commission is regularly monitored.

See Chapter 3 of this guide, Specifications for sieves.

Staining can be artificial or natural.

Artificial stain:

• Includes any stain on kernels caused by contact with foreign substances such as dye or adhered foreign material such as oil, grease, paint or soot
• Does not include any stain caused by poisonous substances

Natural stain:

Natural stain is any stain on kernels caused by contact with natural substances such as smut spores, soil, or weeds.

Consideration is given to the incidence of affected kernels and the nature and severity of the stain.

The nature of the adhered material is indicated on inspection records.

When the nature of the material is in doubt, the sample is sent to the Chief Grain Inspector for review, and, if necessary, for laboratory analysis.

See weed stain.

The Eastern Standards Committee and the Western Standards Committee each meet annually and recommend to the Canadian Grain Commission standard samples of grain for use in grading during that crop year.

Standard samples are prepared for most grades of grain and represent as nearly as possible the minimum quality of each grade, considering the predominant grading factors in the current crop. They are used as visual guides to grading grain before and on delivery at terminal elevators, and on shipments from terminal elevators.

A terminal elevator is a licensed elevator used principally to receive grain and condition grain for export.

An inland terminal elevator is an elevator—licensed as a primary elevator —for receiving and conditioning of the grain for direct or indirect export.

Hot dry conditions during maturation of wheat can severely reduce kernel size and cause shrunken kernels. As a result

• Test weight is reduced
• Flour yield is reduced
• More small kernels are removed during cleaning

Treated seed: Treated seed is grain that has been coated with an agricultural chemical for agronomic purposes. These include protection of the germinating seed from insects and pathogens, and increasing the availability of nutrients to the seed when planted. Seed treatment dressings may contain one or more insecticides or fungicides, and seed inoculants usually contain either a fungus or bacteria. Both types of seed dressings contain a dye to render the treated seed visually conspicuous. The colour of the dye varies depending upon the type of treatment and the type of grain. The current Canadian colour standards for pesticide seed treatments are: cereals- pink or red, canola - baby blue or green.

Seed treated with an inoculant may have a green stain. The coatings or stains may appear greasy or powdery and surface area distribution ranges from tiny flecks to complete coverage.

Other chemical substances: Other chemical substances refers to any chemical residues either adhering to the kernel or remaining in the sample and to samples having a chemical odour of any kind.

Unprocessed samples of grain are those which have not been cleaned commercially.

See also processed sample.

Unregistered variety is sometimes used for the term non-registered variety.

See registered variety.

A weed stain is a type of natural stain. A weed stain refers to

• The blotched or stained appearance of kernels caused by contact with the sap from green foliage of such weeds as Russian thistle
• Kernels with adhered foliage of weeds

The Western Certificate (Eastern Division) is an export certificate issued in eastern Canada for corn loaded to a laker. It includes a statement of agreement between the shipper and purchaser indicating further inspection is not required.

1. The shipper originates the request for this type of certification before shipment.
2. The Western Certificate is issued to indicate quality at initial loading.
3. Any subsequent handling that increases breakage and lowers the grade becomes the responsibility of the buyer rather than the seller.

The following wheat classes are produced in Canada and are graded according to specifications detailed in the Guide.

• Canada Western/Eastern Amber Durum (CWAD) (CEAD)
• Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS)
• Canada Western Hard White Spring (CWHWS)
• Canada Western Red Winter (CWRW)
• Canada Prairie Spring Red (CPSR)
• Canada Prairie Spring White (CPSW)
• Canada Western Extra Strong (CWES)
• Canada Western Soft White Spring (CWSWS)
• Canada Western Special Purpose (CWSP)
• Canada Northern Hard Red (CNHR)
• Canada Eastern White Winter (CEWW)
• Canada Eastern Red Spring (CERS)
• Canada Eastern Hard Red Winter (CEHRW)
• Canada Eastern Soft Red Winter (CESRW)
• Canada Eastern Other Wheat (CEOW)

Other classes of wheat are all classes of wheat including non-registered varieties, other than the predominant class in the sample. Contrasting classes are classes of different coloured wheat; for example CWAD is a contrasting class in CWRS.